Exploring Second Language Writers’ Usage Behavior of Automatic Speech Recognition: A Focus on Lexical Diversity in Narrative Texts
Abstract
Strategies are techniques for making tasks easier to complete. While strategy use in writing research has been widely investigated, little is known about the strategies that second language (L2) writers might employ when producing text using automatic speech recognition (ASR), and whether there is an association between the strategy used and the lexical diversity of the produced text. This study adopts an exploratory approach with a one-sample design involving 30 nonnative English writers to examine what strategies L2 writers adopt when producing narrative texts with ASR and how these strategies affect the diversity of lexical items in their texts. While the absence of a control group limits causal inferences, the study provides preliminary insights into the role of ASR in shaping L2 writing behaviors and lexical diversity, emphasizing the unique affordances of ASR technology for process-based writing. The findings reveal that L2 writers mostly used four general strategies when composing with ASR and that the exclusive use of ASR does not necessarily lead to a higher lexical diversity of narrative texts. Our discussion highlights the importance of these findings and proposes lines of inquiry for future research on the use of ASR-based writing strategies and their potential effect on lexical diversity in texts.
Keywords
References
Ardasheva, Y., & Tretter, T. R. (2013). Strategy inventory for language learning-ELL student form: Testing for factorial validity. Modern Language Journal, 97(2), 474–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2013.12011.x
Berninger, V. W., & Amtmann, D. (2003). Preventing written expression disabilities through early and continuing assessment and intervention for handwriting and/or spelling problems: Research into practice. In H. L. Swanson, K. R. Harris, & S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of learning disabilities (pp. 345–363). Guilford Press.
Berninger, V. W., Fuller, F., & Whitaker, D. (1996). A process model of writing development across the life span. Educational Psychology Review, 8(3), 193–218. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23359413
Berninger, V. W., Garcia, N. P., & Abbott, R. D. (2009). Multiple processes that matter in writing instruction and assessment. In Instruction and assessment for struggling writers: Evidence-based practices (pp. 15–50). Guilford Press.
Berninger, V., & Winn, W. (2006). Implications of advancements in brain research and technology for writing development, writing instruction, and educational evolution. In C. MacArthur, S. Graham, & J. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Handbook of writing research (pp. 96–114). Guilford Press.
Berninger, V., Yates, C., Cartwright, A., Rutberg, J., Remy, E., & Abbott, R. (1992). Lower-level developmental skills in beginning writing. Reading and Writing, 4(3), 257–280. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01027151
Cardoso, W. (2022). Technology for Speaking Development. In T. M. Derwing, M. J. Munro, & R. I. Thomson (Eds.), Routledge Handbook on Second Language Acquisition and Speaking. Routledge. https://www.routledge.com/The-Routledge-Handbook-of-Second-Language-Acquisition-and-Speaking/Derwing-Munro Thomson/p/book/9780367900847
Caute, A., & Woolf, C. (2016). Using voice recognition software to improve communicative writing and social participation in an individual with severe acquired dysgraphia: an experimental single-case therapy study. Aphasiology, 30(2–3), 245–268. https://doi.org/10.1080/02687038.2015.1041095
Chamot, A. U. (2005). Language learning strategy instruction: Current issues and research. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 25, 112–130. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190505000061
Chamot, A. U. (2007). Accelerating academic achievement of English language learners. In J. Cummins & C. Davison (Eds.), International handbook of English language teaching (pp. 317–331). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-46301-8_23%0A%0A
Cohen, J. (1992). Statistical power analysis. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1(3), 98–101. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.EP10768783/ASSET/1467-8721.EP10768783.FP.PNG_V03
Covington, M. A., & McFall, J. D. (2010). Cutting the Gordian Knot: The Moving-Average Type-Token Ratio (MATTR). Journal of Quantitative Linguistics, 17(2), 94–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/09296171003643098
Crowhurst, M. (1980). Syntactic complexity in narration and argument at three grade levels. Canadian Journal of Education, 5(1), 6–13. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1494634
Davis, S. (2019, September 12). 13 Thought-Provoking Personal Narrative Prompts. Academic Writing Success. https://www.academicwritingsuccess.com/13-thought-provoking-personal-narrative-prompts/
Dillon, T., & Wells, D. (2021). Student Perceptions of Mobile Automated Speech Recognition for Pronunciation Study and Testing. English Teaching(South Korea), 76(4), 101–122. https://doi.org/10.15858/engtea.76.4.202112.101
Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Routledge.
Enge, E. (2020). Mobile Voice Usage Trends in 2020. Perficient. https://www.perficient.com/insights/research-hub/voice-usage-trends
Evers, K., & Chen, S. (2021). Effects of automatic speech recognition software on pronunciation for adults with different learning styles. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 59(4), 669–685. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633120972011
Flower, L., & Hayes, J. (1980). The cognition of discovery: Defining a rhetorical problem. College Composition and Communication, 31(1), 21–32. https://doi.org/10.2307/356630
Geertz, C. (2008). Thick Description: Toward an interpretive theory of culture. In The cultural geography reader (1st ed., pp. 41–51). Routledge.
Gil Urrutia, J. I., Brangier, E., & Cessat, L. (2017). Is a holistic criteria-based approach possible in user experience? In A. Marcus & W. Wang (Eds.), Design, user experience, and usability: Theory, methodology, and management (pp. 395–409). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58634-2_29
Grenfell, M., & Harris, V. (1999). Modern languages and learning strategies (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203013823
Griffiths, C. (2007). Language learning strategies: Students’ and teachers’ perceptions. ELT Journal, 61(2), 91–99. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccm001
Guiraud, P. L. (1960). Problèmes et méthodes de la statistique linguistique (1st ed.). Springer Dordrecht. https://link.springer.com/book/9789027700254
Hayes, J. (1996). A new framework for understanding cognition and affect in writing. In C. M. Levy & S. Ransdell (Eds.), The science of writing: Theories, methods, individual differences, and applications (pp. 1–27). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Healey, B., & Gardner, P. (2021). Writing, grammar and the body: a cognitive stylistics framework for teaching upper primary narrative writing. Literacy, 55(2), 125–135. https://doi.org/10.1111/lit.12242
IELTS Guide. (2022). Cambridge Assessment English. https://www.ielts.org/
Inceoglu, S., Chen, W. H., & Lim, H. (2023). Assessment of L2 intelligibility: Comparing L1 listeners and automatic speech recognition. ReCALL, 35(1), 89–104. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0958344022000192
Johnson, R. B., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed Methods Research: A Research Paradigm Whose Time Has Come. 33(7), 14–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0013189X033007014
Johnson, R., & Christensen, L. (2019). Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches (7th ed.). Sage Publications. https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781544337821/
Kyle, K., Crossley, S. A., & Jarvis, S. (2021). Assessing the Validity of Lexical Diversity Indices Using Direct Judgements. Language Assessment Quarterly, 18(2), 154–170. https://doi.org/10.1080/15434303.2020.1844205
Lan, R., & Oxford, R. L. (2003). Language learning strategy profiles of elementary school students in Taiwan. IRAL - International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 41(4), 339–379. https://doi.org/10.1515/iral.2003.016
Laufer, B., & Nation, P. (1995). Vocabulary size and use: Lexical richness in L2 written production. Applied Linguistics, 16(3), 307–322. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/16.3.307
Leahy, W., & Sweller, J. (2011). Cognitive load theory, modality of presentation and the transient information effect. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25(6), 943–951. https://doi.org/10.1002/ACP.1787
Leijten, M., & Van Waes, L. (2005). Writing with speech recognition: The adaptation process of professional writers with and without dictating experience. Interacting with Computers, 17(6), 736–772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intcom.2005.01.005
Liakin, D., Cardoso, W., & Liakina, N. (2015). Learning L2 pronunciation with a mobile speech recognizer: French /y/. CALICO Journal, 32(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1558/cj.v32i1.25962
Linnarud, M. (1986). Lexis in composition: A performance analysis of Swedish learners’ written English. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 9(2), 254–256. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263100000516
Ma, R., & Oxford, R. L. (2014). A diary study focusing on listening and speaking: The evolving interaction of learning styles and learning strategies in a motivated, advanced ESL learner. System, 43(1), 101–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2013.12.010
MacArthur, C. (1999). Overcoming barriers to writing: Computer support for basic writing skills. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 15(2), 169–192. https://doi.org/10.1080/105735699278251
MacArthur, C. (2000). New tools for writing: Assistive technology for students with writing difficulties. Topics in Language Disorders, 20(4), 85–100.
Magogwe, J. M., & Oliver, R. (2007). The relationship between language learning strategies, proficiency, age and self-efficacy beliefs: A study of language learners in Botswana. System, 35(3), 338–352.
Mayer, R. E. (2005). Cognitive theory of multimedia learning. The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning.
McCarthy, P. M., & Jarvis, S. (2010). MTLD, vocd-D, and HD-D: A validation study of sophisticated approaches to lexical diversity assessment. Behavior Research Methods, 42(2), 381–392. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.42.2.381/METRICS
McCrocklin, S., & Edalatishams, I. (2020). Revisiting Popular Speech Recognition Software for ESL Speech. TESOL Quarterly, 54(4), 1086–1097. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.3006
McCrocklin, S., Humaidan, A., & Edalatishams, E. (2019). ASR dictation program accuracy: Have current programs improved? In J. Levis, C. Nagle, & E. Todey (Eds.), Proceedings of the 10th pronunciation in second language learning and teaching conference (pp. 191–200). Iowa State University.
McNamara, D. S., Graesser, A. C., McCarthy, P. M., & Cai, Z. (2014). Automated evaluation of text and discourse with Coh-Metrix. Cambridge University Press.
Mroz, A. (2018). Seeing how people hear you: French learners experiencing intelligibility through automatic speech recognition. Foreign Language Annals, 51(3), 617–637. https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12348
Nation, I. S. P., & Newton, J. M. (2008). Teaching ESL/EFL Listening and Speaking. Taylor & Francis.
Oxford, R. L. (1986). Development and psychometric testing of the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL).
Oxford, R. L. (1999). Relationship between second language strategies and proficiency in the context of learner autonomy and self-regulation. Revista Canaria de Estudios Ingleses [Canadian Journal of English Studies], 1(38), 109–126.
Papert, S. (1996). Computers in the classroom: Agents of change. The Washington Post Education Review, 27.
Pawlak, M., & Kruk, M. (2022). Individual differences in computer assisted language learning research. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003240051
Quinlan, T. (2004). Speech recognition technology and students with writing difficulties: Improving fluency. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 337–346. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.96.2.337
Reece, J., & Cummings, G. (1996). Evaluating speech-based composition methods: Planning, dictation, and the listening word processor. In C. M. Levy & S. Ransdell (Eds.), The science of writing: Theories, methods, individual differences, and applications (pp. 361–380). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Selouani, S., Lê, T., Benahmed, Y., & O’Shaughnessy, D. (2008). Speech-enabled tools for augmented interaction in e-learning applications. International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 6(2), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.4018/jdet.2008040101
Silva, T. (1993). Toward an understanding of the distinct nature of L2 writing: The ESL research andits implications. TESOL Quarterly, 27, 657–677. https://doi.org/10.2307/3587400
Stewner-Manzanares, G., Chamot, A. U., O’Malley, J. M., Kupper, L., & Russo, R. P. (1984). A teacher’s guide for using learning strategies in English-as-a-second- language instruction.
Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12(2), 257–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7
Van Lieshout, C., & Cardoso, W. (2022). Google Translate as a Tool for Self-Directed Language Learning. Language Learning & Technology, 26(1), 1–19. http://hdl.handle.net/10125/73460
Weigle, S. (2010). Assessing Writing. In Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511732997
Yu, G. (2010). Lexical diversity in writing and speaking task performances. Applied Linguistics, 31(2), 236–259. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amp024
Zenker, F., & Kyle, K. (2021). Investigating minimum text lengths for lexical diversity indices. Assessing Writing, 47, 100505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2020.100505
Refbacks
- There are currently no refbacks.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.